Natural Products Used as Disinfectants in Prosthodontics and Oral Implantology: A Narrative Review

doi:10.14218/JERP.2025.00016

Review Article

OPEN ACCESS

Download PDF

Natural Products Used as Disinfectants in Prosthodontics and Oral Implantology: A Narrative Review

Manar Hamed Almehyawi¹,
Diyala Mohammed Basyoni¹,
Rima Basil Alsibaie¹,
Khadijah Hashim Alhussini¹,
Renad Mohammed Lashkar¹,
Rama Krishna Alla^2,* ,
Mohammed Shammas³ and
Ghaida Meshari Alotaibi¹

Journal of Exploratory Research in Pharmacology 2025

doi: 10.14218/JERP.2025.00016

Received: March 26, 2025

Revised: May 8, 2025

Accepted: July 9, 2025

Published online: July 31, 2025

Author information

Citation: Almehyawi MH, Basyoni DM, Alsibaie RB, Alhussini KH, Lashkar RM, Alla RK, et al. Natural Products Used as Disinfectants in Prosthodontics and Oral Implantology: A Narrative Review. J Explor Res Pharmacol. Published online: Jul 31, 2025. doi: 10.14218/JERP.2025.00016.

Abstract

Infection control is essential for the success of prosthodontic and oral implant procedures, as microbial contamination can lead to serious complications such as denture stomatitis and peri-implantitis. While synthetic disinfectants like chlorhexidine are commonly used, they may cause side effects including irritation, toxicity, and the development of microbial resistance over time. Natural products derived from plants, animals, and minerals are currently being explored as safer alternatives. Compounds such as epigallocatechin gallate from green tea; eugenol from clove oil; quercetin, thymol, cinnamaldehyde, and flavonoids from propolis; and terpinen-4-ol from tea tree oil have shown strong antimicrobial and anti-biofilm properties. These natural agents are not only effective against harmful oral bacteria but also promote healing, are more biocompatible, environmentally friendly, and are often preferred by patients. However, challenges remain regarding their routine clinical use. The strength and composition of natural agents can vary, and there is a lack of consistent product standards, clinical trials, and comprehensive safety data. Currently, these products are not approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for dental use and are only available as over-the-counter remedies. Production costs and scalability must also be evaluated in comparison with synthetic alternatives. Emerging technologies, such as nanocarriers and targeted delivery systems, are being developed to enhance the effectiveness of natural agents in dental applications. Further clinical research and the establishment of clear regulatory guidelines are necessary to support their integration into clinical practice. Natural disinfectants hold significant potential to become valuable, safe, and sustainable tools for maintaining hygiene in prosthodontics and oral implantology.

Keywords

Antimicrobial agents, Biofilms, Dental implants, Herbal medicine, Nanotechnology, Phytotherapy

Introduction

Prosthodontics and oral implantology have transformed dental care by restoring the function and aesthetics of patients with missing or damaged teeth. In the United States, over five million dental implants are placed annually to replace missing teeth.¹ These fields utilize various materials, including metals, ceramics, and polymers.² Despite their durability, these materials are susceptible to microbial contamination, posing significant challenges to infection control. Nosocomial infections, often originating in clinical settings, are primarily associated with biofilm formation due to the high pathogenicity of biofilm-producing microorganisms.³ Bacterial adhesion to implant surfaces initiates biofilm development, emphasizing the critical role of implant surface properties in influencing host responses.⁴ Effective infection control, including the strategic use of disinfectants, is essential for preserving oral health and ensuring the long-term success of dental prostheses and implants.

Disinfectants play a vital role in reducing microbial load on dental instruments and surfaces, ensuring aseptic conditions during procedures, and minimizing infection risk.⁵ They help prevent bacterial colonization around implants, thereby aiding in the control of peri-implantitis by reducing inflammation and protecting surrounding tissues.⁶ Although disinfectants may not replace established decontamination protocols, their contribution to maintaining asepsis remains crucial for successful implant therapy.⁷ However, the long-term use of synthetic disinfectants raises concerns due to their adverse effects. Despite their proven antimicrobial efficacy, agents such as chlorhexidine can cause mucosal irritation, tissue cytotoxicity, allergic reactions, and may contribute to the development of antimicrobial resistance. These health and environmental risks have spurred interest in safer and more sustainable alternatives, particularly natural disinfectants for routine dental use. Historically, synthetic disinfectants have been the primary agents used to combat microbial contamination in dental practices. Nonetheless, growing concerns about their toxicity, ecological impact, and role in promoting antimicrobial resistance have led to increased interest in natural alternatives. Limitations of synthetic disinfectants, including cytotoxicity, promotion of antimicrobial resistance, allergic responses, ecological damage, high production or disposal costs, have called their long-term viability into question. Their harmful effects on oral tissues and potential to disrupt microbial homeostasis further compromise their clinical sustainability. By contrast, natural alternatives offer several advantages that support their integration into dental disinfection protocols. These agents are generally more biocompatible, exhibit lower toxicity, and are less likely to induce microbial resistance. Derived from renewable sources, they impose a reduced ecological burden. Additionally, their milder sensory profiles and cultural familiarity enhance patient acceptability. These benefits position natural disinfectants as promising substitutes in prosthodontics and implantology, aligning with goals of efficacy, safety, and sustainability.

Natural products, including plant-based extracts, animal-derived substances, and mineral compounds, exhibit potent antimicrobial properties with fewer side effects, making them attractive candidates for dental applications.⁸ Furthermore, they offer a viable means of preventing biofilm formation.⁹ Although natural disinfectants are not new, their applications in prosthodontics and oral implantology remain underexplored. Plant-derived agents such as clove, neem, and tea tree oil, along with animal-based products like honey and propolis, have demonstrated strong antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects.¹⁰ Natural substances including propolis, Aloe vera, and green tea have shown notable antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities, making them effective for cavity disinfection.¹¹ These alternatives are often less toxic, more cost-effective, environmentally friendly, and generally better accepted by patients.⁹ Despite these advantages, the literature lacks comprehensive reviews specifically addressing the use of natural disinfectants for prosthetic materials and dental implant surfaces. This gap highlights the need for a focused evaluation of their efficacy, safety, and clinical potential in prosthodontics and oral implantology. Accordingly, this review aims to bridge that gap by critically analyzing natural disinfectants, comparing their mechanisms of action and efficacy with those of synthetic agents, and assessing their potential for integration into clinical dental protocols.

Methodology

This narrative review was designed to explore and critically appraise the use of natural disinfectants in prosthodontics and oral implantology. A comprehensive electronic literature search was conducted from December 1, 2024, to March 30, 2025, across five major databases: PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, and Google Scholar.

Search strategy

The search strategy was developed using a combination of Medical Subject Headings and free-text keywords combined with Boolean operators (“AND,” “OR”) to maximize sensitivity and specificity across databases. Keywords included “natural disinfectants,” “prosthodontics,” “phytotherapeutic agents,” “dental materials,” “herbal products,” “implantology,” “natural antimicrobials,” “denture disinfection,” “essential oils,” “peri-implantitis,” and “plant-based antimicrobials in oral care.” A representative PubMed search string was: (“natural disinfectants” OR “herbal products”) AND (“prosthodontics” OR “dental materials”) AND (“implantology” OR “peri-implantitis”). Searches were performed across PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, and Google Scholar to ensure comprehensive literature coverage. PubMed/MEDLINE was used for peer-reviewed biomedical articles, Scopus and Web of Science for multidisciplinary scientific publications, Cochrane Library for relevant reviews and clinical trials, and Google Scholar to identify additional gray literature. Reference lists of selected articles were also manually screened to identify any missed studies.

Selection criteria

Inclusion criteria comprised original research articles, systematic reviews, or clinical trials evaluating natural products with antimicrobial or disinfectant properties in prosthodontics and/or implantology; studies published in English; in vitro, in vivo, or clinical studies addressing oral biofilm control, denture disinfection, peri-implant mucositis, or related implant-associated infections; and studies reporting outcomes on antimicrobial efficacy, biocompatibility, or clinical performance. Exclusion criteria included studies not directly related to prosthodontics or implantology; articles focusing solely on synthetic disinfectants or conventional chemical agents; editorials, commentaries, letters, or abstracts lacking methodological detail; duplicate publications or papers with incomplete data; and articles published in languages other than English.

Study selection and data extraction

Study selection followed a three-phase process: initial screening of titles, followed by abstract review, and finally full-text evaluation for eligibility. Two independent reviewers, MS and RK, conducted all screening and selection phases. Discrepancies were resolved through mutual discussion. Data extraction utilized a standardized format focusing on study type, source of the natural agent, active phytochemical components, mechanisms of action, mode of application, antimicrobial efficacy, advantages, limitations, and clinical relevance to prosthodontic and implant care.

Classification of natural products used as disinfectants

Plant-based products

The antimicrobial properties of plant-based products and their lower incidence of side effects compared to chemical agents have increased their popularity as natural substitutes for oral hygiene.¹⁰ Clove, miswak, tea tree oil, neem, and Aloe vera are herbs and essential oils that have demonstrated effectiveness in supporting dental and oral health. After ginger-garlic paste, neem and tea tree oil, clove oil exhibits the strongest antimicrobial activity against microorganisms responsible for dental caries.¹² Caries disinfectants such as tea tree oil and Aloe vera gel are effective; however, 2% chlorhexidine has demonstrated superior results.¹³ The potent antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral compounds found in miswak, eucalyptus oil, thyme oil, and cinnamon oil make them excellent for maintaining oral health and prosthetic surfaces by dissolving and disrupting biofilms.¹⁴

Animal-based products

Animal-based disinfectant products, particularly bee-derived substances such as propolis and honey, have gained attention in dentistry for their antimicrobial properties. Propolis, a resinous substance produced by bees, has garnered significant interest due to its diverse therapeutic effects. It exhibits potent antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory activities, making it valuable for dental applications.¹⁵ Its efficacy in inhibiting oral pathogens such as Streptococcus mutans (S. mutans) and Candida albicans (C. albicans) supports its use in preventing dental caries and oral infections.¹⁶ Propolis has also been investigated for treating recurrent aphthous stomatitis, oral mucositis, and cavity disinfection following caries removal.¹⁷

Mineral and microbial products

Natural mineral and microbial products are promising alternatives to synthetic disinfectants for dental implants, offering antimicrobial properties and promoting biocompatibility with minimal side effects. Clay minerals have demonstrated antibacterial properties against various pathogens, including antibiotic-resistant strains. Antimicrobial coatings on prosthetic surfaces may inhibit colonization by Candida species-containing polymicrobial biofilms in dental implantology. These coatings include antibiotics, sanitizing agents, nanoparticles, and antimicrobial peptides.¹⁸ Bacteriocins produced by lactic acid bacteria are promising bioactive peptides with antimicrobial activity against oral pathogens.^18,19 All natural disinfectants, their active compounds, mechanisms, applications, advantages, and limitations in prosthodontics and implantology are summarized in Table 1.^20–38

Table 1

Overview of various natural disinfectants and their roles in prosthodontics and implantology

Example	Source	Active compound	Mechanism of action	Application in prosthodontics/implantology	Advantage	Limitation	Reference
Bioactive compound	Plant (Podocarpus totara)	Totarol	Contact killing, biofilm inhibition	Coatings on the surfaces or abutments of titanium implants and silicon wafers	Strong anti-microbial and anti-coating on dental surface	Delayed anti-adhesion and inhibition effect on biofilm development	²⁰
Clove	Plant (Syzygium aromaticum)	Eugenol	Disrupts microbial cell membranes, inhibits biofilms	Denture disinfectant, anti-inflammatory, used in oral rinses	Strong antimicrobial activity, anti-inflammatory	Potential irritation, taste issues	²¹
Tea tree oil	Plant (Melaleuca alternifolia)	Terpinen-4-ol	Antimicrobial, disrupts cell membranes	Used in mouthwashes, peri-implantitis treatment	Antifungal, anti-bacterial	Allergic reactions in some individuals	²²
Neem	Plant (Azadirachta indica)	Azadirachtin, nimbidin	Inhibits bacterial growth, anti-inflammatory	Used in denture cleaning, oral rinses	Wide antimicrobial spectrum	Bitter taste, inconsistent strength	²³
Aloe vera	Plant (Aloe barbadensis)	Aloin, Aloe-emodin, anthraquinones	Anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial	Used in peri-implant healing gels, oral hygiene products	Healing properties, soothing effect	Requires high concentration for efficacy	²⁴
Miswak	Plant (Salvadora persica)	Salvadorine	Antibacterial, biofilm disruption	Used for cleaning teeth and prosthetic surfaces	Natural toothbrush, potent antimicrobial	It may not fully replace modern methods	²⁵
Eucalyptus oil	Plant (Eucalyptus globulus)	1,8-cineole	Antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral	Oral rinses for infection control	Broad antimicrobial action	May irritate in large doses	²⁶
Thyme oil	Plant (Thymus vulgaris)	Thymol	Antimicrobial inhibits microbial enzyme systems	Oral rinses, prosthetic surface disinfection	Effective against a wide range of bacteria	Potential irritant at high concentrations	²⁷
Cinnamon oil	Plant (Cinnamomum verum/Cinnamomum cassia)	Cinnamaldehyde	Antibacterial, disrupts bacterial cell walls and surface charge, inhibits quorum sensing	Surface disinfectant for dental tools and prostheses	Strong antifungal and antibacterial	High doses may cause irritation	²⁸
Green tea extract	Plant (Camellia sinensis)	Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG)	Inhibits bacterial enzymes, biofilm reduction, reduced plaque index, gingival index	Used in oral gels, toothpaste, adjunct to peri-implant treatments	Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory	Effectiveness varies depending on the concentration	²⁹
Propolis	Animal (bee product)	Flavonoids, phenolic acids	Inhibits microbial growth, has antioxidant properties, antifungal, antiviral	Used in mouthwashes, topical application for implant sites	Strong antimicrobial and healing effects	Inconsistent composition, potential allergies	³⁰
Honey	Animal (bee product)	Hydrogen peroxide, flavonoids	Antimicrobial, inhibits biofilm formation, wound healing	Used for wound healing in implantology, peri-implantitis management	Promotes healing, anti-inflammatory	Sticky texture, limited availability	³¹
Shark liver oil	Animal (marine animal)	Alkylglycerols	Antimicrobial, promotes wound healing	Used in implant sites for anti-inflammatory effects	Promotes tissue regeneration, anti-inflammatory	Limited availability, high cost	³²
Bee venom	Animal (bee product)	Melittin, Phospholipase, Apitoxin	Antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory	Potentially used in topical applications for wound care	Strong anti-inflammatory effects	Risk of allergic reactions	³³
Silk protein	Animal (silkworms)	Sericin	Antimicrobial, enhances cell proliferation	Used in dental biomaterials for improved biocompatibility, adhesives, Wound healing, coating	Biocompatible, promotes tissue repair	Limited use, can be expensive	³⁴
Clay	Natural (mineral)	Silica, Montmorillonite, Bentonite	Absorbs toxins, has antimicrobial properties	Used in surface cleaning of prostheses, denture disinfectants	Natural, mild antimicrobial effects	Variable efficacy requires proper application	³⁵
Zeolite	Natural (mineral)	Aluminosilicates	Adsorbs toxins, antimicrobial effects	Used in water filtration, potential use in denture cleaning, dental liners	Effective in adsorbing impurities	Limited direct applications in dentistry	³⁶
Bacteriocins	Natural (produced by microbes)	Nisin, Pediocin	Antimicrobial, disrupts microbial cell membranes	Potential use in oral gels, coatings for implants	Targeted antimicrobial activity	Limited availability, may be strain-specific	³⁷
Lactic acid bacteria	Natural (fermented products)	Lactic acid	Antimicrobial, produces antimicrobial peptides	Used in probiotics for oral health, potential application in mouthwashes	Promotes oral health, inhibits pathogens	Limited effectiveness against all pathogens	³⁸

Mechanisms of action of natural disinfectants

Antimicrobial properties

Direct anti-microbial action

Natural compounds act through multiple mechanisms in oral health: inhibiting bacterial growth and adhesion, exhibiting bacteriostatic and bactericidal effects, suppressing glucan production and amylases, disrupting biofilms and co-aggregation, altering signal transduction, reducing acid and lactic acid production, lowering bacterial hydrophobicity, and downregulating key metabolic genes such as those involved in glycolysis.³⁹ Cubebin derivatives have shown bacteriostatic and fungicidal activities against gram-positive oral bacteria and C. albicans. Essential oils and plant extracts exert bactericidal effects by damaging bacterial membranes or intracellular structures. Targeting DNA gyrase, a key enzyme involved in bacterial DNA replication, is another effective mechanism. Quercetin, a natural flavonoid found in propolis, binds to DNA gyrase, thereby inhibiting bacterial proliferation by disrupting DNA synthesis.⁴⁰ Moreover, quercetin affects quorum sensing pathways, plasma membranes, bacterial adhesion, efflux pump inhibition, nucleic acid synthesis blockage, and membrane modification or destruction.⁴¹ Propolis inhibits DNA-dependent RNA polymerase, disrupting bacterial protein synthesis, and reduces bacterial DNA, RNA, and protein levels, hindering bacterial growth. S. mutans utilizes quorum sensing to regulate bacteriocin production, which influences microbial competition and biofilm formation, playing a key role in dental caries pathogenesis.⁴² These bacteriocins, also called mutacins, inhibit the growth of competing oral bacteria. However, some oral streptococci, such as Streptococcus gordonii, can interfere with S. mutans bacteriocin production through the challisin gene (sgc), potentially disrupting its virulence.⁴³ The mechanisms of action of key natural disinfectants are illustrated in Figure 1.

Fig. 1 Mechanism of action of natural disinfectants.

EGCG, epigallocatechin gallate.

Biofilm disruption

Bacterial biofilms are structured microbial communities encased in a self-produced extracellular matrix.⁴⁴ Natural agents, such as cranberry extracts and propolis, inhibit biofilm formation by blocking bacterial adhesion and disrupting signaling pathways. They also target fungi by impairing adenosine triphosphate synthesis, altering ion flux, and inducing reactive oxygen species-mediated membrane and mitochondrial damage. Essential oils such as cinnamon and clove exhibit antibacterial and antiplaque effects by enhancing surface wettability and reducing bacterial adhesion on implant materials.⁴⁵ Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) inhibits planktonic growth and biofilm formation of S. mutans in a dose-dependent manner by reducing exopolysaccharide production, suppressing gtf gene expression, lowering DNA content, and binding the glucan sucrase enzyme to block its activity.⁴⁶ The natural antibacterial totarol shows bactericidal effects against oral bacteria and inhibits biofilm growth on implant surfaces, while clove oil suppresses biofilm formation by downregulating virulence genes and quorum sensing, thereby reducing extracellular polymeric substance secretion.⁴⁷

Anti-inflammatory and healing properties

Natural agents such as curcumin (from turmeric) and chamomile extracts effectively reduce inflammation by inhibiting the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and enzymes like cyclooxygenase-2. This modulation of inflammatory responses minimizes tissue damage and promotes healing around implants. Periodontitis, an inflammatory dental disease caused by specific microorganisms, leads to tissue destruction. Key pathogens include Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis), Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans, and Tannerella forsythia.⁴⁸ Herbal and natural disinfectants such as tulsi, neem, guava, propolis, and sanguinarine have shown efficacy in controlling these pathogens.⁴⁹ Natural disinfectants reduce bacterial load, enhance the longevity of dental restorations, and may improve resin-dentin bond strength.

Mechanisms specific to oral microorganisms

Natural disinfectants show promise against oral pathogens involved in peri-implantitis and diseases caused by ill-fitting prostheses, notably targeting P. gingivalis and S. mutans. Green tea polyphenols combat bacteria, fungi, and viruses by disrupting cell membranes, inhibiting vital enzymes, and damaging DNA. Similarly, clove oil penetrates bacterial cell walls, effectively killing S. mutans, a major contributor to dental caries.⁵⁰ Various oral pathogens, their associated diseases, and effective antimicrobial natural products are highlighted in Table 2 and Figure 2.^51–56

Table 2

Oral pathogens, their associated diseases, and effective natural disinfectants

No	Oral pathogens	Disease	Natural disinfectant	Refs
1	Porphyromonas gingivalis	Chronic periodontitis, peri-implantitis	Green tea polyphenols (EGCG), trans-cinnamaldehyde, tulsi, neem, guava, propolis, honey, totarol, garlic extract, bacteriocins, sanguinarine	⁵¹
2	Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans	Periodontitis	Tulsi, neem, guava, propolis, garlic extract, sanguinarine	⁵¹
3	Tannerella forsythia	Chronic periodontitis, peri-implantitis	Tulsi, neem, guava, propolis, sanguinarine	⁵¹
4	Streptococcus mutans	Dental caries (tooth decay)	Clove oil, green tea, polyphenols EGCG, honey, sericin, garlic extract, bacteriocins	⁵²
5	Actinomyces israelii	Actinomycosis, root surface caries, gingivitis	Cinnamon oil, clove oil, eucalyptus, EGCG	⁵²
6	Actinomyces naeslundii	Root surface caries, gingivitis	EGCG, garlic extract	⁵²
7	Actinomyces oris	Early plaque formation, gingivitis, root caries	EGCG	⁵²
8	Actinomyces odontolyticus	Dental caries, root canal infections	EGCG	⁵²
9	Prevotella intermedia	Gingivitis, periodontitis, peri-implantitis, acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis (ANUG), endodontic infections	Curcumin, EGCG, honey, totarol, garlic extract	⁵²
10	Fusobacterium nucleatum	Necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis (NUG), root canal infection, periodontitis, peri-implantitis	Propolis, Aloe vera, EGCG, honey, totarol, garlic extract	⁵²
11	Treponema denticola	Chronic periodontitis, necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis (NUG)	Propolis, EGCG	⁵³
12	Prevotella nigrescens	Periodontitis, endodontic infections	Curcumin, totarol, garlic extract	⁵⁴
13	Campylobacter rectus	Chronic periodontitis	Propolis, EGCG, Aloe vera, cranberry, honey	⁵⁴
14	Pseudomonas aeruginosa	Periodontal disease, endodontic infections	EGCG, honey	⁵⁴
15	Eubacterium nodatum	Periodontal disease	Honey	⁵⁴
16	Candida albicans (yeast)	Oral candidiasis (thrush), denture stomatitis	EGCG, garlic extract, citrus extracts	⁵⁴
17	Selenomonas spp.	Chronic periodontitis	Cinnamon bark oil, Aloe vera	⁵⁵
18	Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)	Oral hairy leukoplakia, periodontal disease, Peri-implantitis	EGCG, cranberry extract, propolis	⁵⁵
19	Eikenellacorrodens	Periodontal disease, endodontic infections	Garlic extract	⁵⁶
20	Dialisterpneumosintes	Periodontitis, endodontic infections, periradicular diseases	Propolis	⁵⁶
21	Treponema socranskii	Chronic periodontitis, necrotizing periodontal diseases	EGCG	⁵⁶
22	Porphyromonas endodontalis	Endodontic infections	Propolis	⁵⁶
23	Staphylococcus spp.	Peri-implantitis, prosthetic infections	Tea tree oil, garlic extract, cinnamon oil, honey, Aloe vera	⁵⁶
24	Desulfobulbus spp.	Periodontal disease	Garlic extract	⁵⁶
25	Lactobacillus spp.	Dental caries, especially root caries	EGCG	⁵⁶
26	Actinomyces viscosus	Root surface caries, gingivitis	EGCG	⁵⁶
27	Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans	Aggressive periodontitis, chronic periodontitis	EGCG, honey, totarol	⁵⁶
28	Veillonella parvula	Periodontal disease, endodontic infections	EGCG	⁵⁶
29	Herpes simplex virus type I (HSV-1)	Herpetic gingivostomatitis, cold sores, Peri-implantitis	Aloe vera, EGCG, propolis, licorice root extract	⁵⁶
30	Human papilloma virus (HPV)	Oral warts, potentially associated with oral cancers, periodontitis	EGCG, curcumin, Aloe vera	⁵⁶

EGCG, epigallocatechin gallate.

Fig. 2 Antimicrobial natural agents and their bioactive compounds with functional roles in oral and peri-implant health.

Applications in prosthodontics

Disinfection of prosthetic appliances

Prosthetic appliances such as dentures, crowns, bridges, and veneers are prone to microbial contamination, increasing the risk of infection. Citrus extracts effectively target C. albicans, a common denture pathogen. Natural agents, such as soda, vinegar, thymol, and salt, have demonstrated efficacy comparable to commercial denture cleaners. Phytotherapeutic herbs rich in polyphenols, flavonoids, and tannins offer antimicrobial, antifungal, and anti-inflammatory benefits, supporting oral health and prosthodontic appliance maintenance.⁵⁷ Examples of natural disinfectants used in prosthodontics include:

Clove: Its active compound eugenol disrupts microbial membranes and inhibits biofilm formation, making it effective for denture disinfection and oral rinses. It also has anti-inflammatory properties that reduce mucosal irritation associated with prosthetic appliances.21
Tea tree oil: Terpinen-4-ol in tea tree oil exhibits potent antibacterial and antifungal activities by disrupting cell membranes. It is used in mouthwashes targeting peri-implant infections and denture-related biofilms.22
Neem: Neem extracts, rich in azadirachtin and nimbidin, have broad-spectrum antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects and are widely used in denture cleaning and oral rinses to reduce microbial colonization on prosthetic surfaces.23
Thyme oil: It effectively inhibits microbial enzyme systems and serves as an oral rinse and prosthetic surface disinfectant, demonstrating efficacy against diverse bacteria involved in prosthetic contamination.27
Cinnamon oil: Cinnamaldehyde disrupts bacterial cell walls and inhibits quorum sensing, making it a strong antifungal and antibacterial agent for disinfecting dental instruments and prostheses.28
Green tea extract: EGCG inhibits bacterial enzymes and reduces biofilm formation, useful in oral gels and toothpaste adjunctive to prosthetic hygiene, and helps reduce plaque and gingival inflammation.29
Propolis: It is rich in flavonoids and phenolic acids, and it inhibits microbial growth and promotes healing when applied topically or in mouthwashes for prosthetic-related infections.30

Incorporation in dental materials

Integrating natural antimicrobial agents such as propolis, tea tree oil, or curcumin into dental materials, including titanium surfaces, makes them inhospitable to bacterial and fungal growth. Studies have demonstrated that adding phytoncide (a volatile organic compound produced by plants) to polymethyl methacrylate resins commonly used in denture bases significantly inhibits C. albicans growth.⁵⁸ Incorporating these natural agents into dental cements enhances antimicrobial properties without compromising mechanical strength or biocompatibility. However, a systematic review found inconclusive evidence regarding the effectiveness of incorporating antimicrobial agents into denture base resins.⁵⁸

Use in oral rinses and gels

The popularity of herbal mouthwashes and gels as adjuncts to traditional prosthetic care has increased. Caries-causing microorganisms such as Streptococcus mitis, S. mutans, Staphylococcus aureus, and Lactobacillus spp. can be significantly inhibited by clove oil, ginger-garlic paste, neem, cinnamon oil, eucalyptus oil, turmeric, and tea tree oil in mouthwashes and dentifrices. A herbal mouth rinse containing natural ingredients outperformed commercial products in inhibiting S. mutans, Streptococcus sanguis, and Actinomyces viscosus.⁵⁹ Herbal mixtures and cranberry mouth rinses demonstrated antimicrobial effects comparable to chlorhexidine against S. mutans, Lactobacillus fermentum, and Lactobacillus casei, suggesting their potential as effective natural alternatives.⁵⁹

Applications in oral implantology

Disinfection of implant surfaces

Presurgical sterilization of implant surfaces is critical to prevent early implant failure caused by microbial contamination. Various sterilization techniques may affect titanium implant surfaces, altering their critical surface energy and bioadhesive properties. Essential oils, such as cinnamon and clove, have demonstrated significant antibacterial effects on various implant materials, increasing surface wettability and reducing bacterial adhesion over 48 hours. Citric acid and tetracycline effectively disinfect osseotite implant surfaces contaminated with P. gingivalis, although nanotite surfaces prove more challenging to disinfect.⁶⁰ Totarol, a natural antibacterial agent, has shown promising results as a coating on implant surfaces, providing long-term inhibition of bacterial adhesion and biofilm development.⁶⁰ Various natural products used as disinfectants in oral implantology are described below.

Totarol: This bioactive compound from Podocarpus totara has been successfully applied as a coating on titanium implant surfaces, significantly inhibiting bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation over prolonged periods.²⁰

Cinnamon and clove oils: Both essential oils exhibit antibacterial properties that enhance implant surface wettability, thereby reducing bacterial adhesion on implant materials during the critical early postsurgical period.^21,28

Management of peri-implant infections

Peri-implantitis is a common inflammatory condition characterized by destruction of peri-implant soft and hard tissues, often driven by bacterial biofilm formation. This can lead to bone loss and potential implant failure.⁶¹ Topical application of several natural agents has demonstrated efficacy in controlling peri-implantitis. Both propolis and Aloe vera tooth gels improved clinical and microbiological parameters in patients with chronic periodontitis, with propolis showing superior reduction of red complex microorganisms.⁶² EGCG is known for its antibacterial and anti-biofilm activity against a diverse bacterial population at implant sites, including P. gingivalis, S. mutans, Fusobacterium nucleatum, Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, and C. albicans (Table 2).^51–56 A few natural agents used to treat peri-implantitis are described below.

Propolis and Aloe vera: Both agents exhibit antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and wound-healing properties. Propolis demonstrated superior reduction of red complex bacteria in chronic periodontitis, while Aloe vera promoted peri-implant tissue healing.24,30
Green tea extract: This agent exerts antibacterial and anti-biofilm effects against key peri-implant pathogens such as P. gingivalis, S. mutans, and C. albicans, thereby enhancing implant site health.29

Adjunctive use with mechanical debridement

Natural products, particularly those with antimicrobial properties, serve as useful adjuncts to mechanical therapy for periodontal diseases. Green tea extract has shown promise as adjuvant therapy by reducing inflammation, osteoclastic activity, and alveolar bone loss in experimental periodontitis.⁶³ The modified lipid-soluble form EGCG exhibits synergistic effects with antibiotics, inhibiting biofilm formation by up to 99% in various pathogenic bacteria. Combinations of natural agents such as propolis and EGCG have demonstrated enhanced anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial efficacy, suggesting potential synergy. These combinations may further improve clinical outcomes when used alongside conventional therapies. The combination of essential oils with mechanical debridement also shows promise in managing peri-implantitis, though further research, including in vivo studies and clinical trials, is needed to establish efficacy and optimal application methods.⁶⁴

Green tea extract: Acts synergistically with conventional periodontal therapies, reducing inflammation and alveolar bone loss, demonstrating promising adjunctive benefits in managing peri-implantitis.63
Lipid-soluble EGCG: This shows enhanced biofilm inhibition (>99%) when combined with antibiotics, suggesting potential for improved clinical outcomes.63
Combination of propolis and EGCG: The combination enhances anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial effects, indicating potential synergy when used alongside mechanical debridement.29,30
Essential oils: Preliminary evidence suggests that essential oils can support mechanical therapy in peri-implantitis management, although further clinical studies are required to establish standardized protocols.64

Regulatory and economic considerations

The translation of natural antimicrobial products into dental applications requires careful navigation of regulatory frameworks such as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (hereinafter referred to as FDA) and European Medicines Agency pathways. Over-the-counter (OTC) limitations apply to many botanicals unless supported by substantial safety and efficacy data. Natural agents like propolis, tea tree oil, and neem are often classified as dietary supplements or traditional remedies, whereas synthetic compounds undergo stricter clinical trials and approvals.^17,23,62 Economically, natural products may offer cost advantages due to lower production and processing costs, but variability in standardization can increase long-term expenses. In contrast, synthetic alternatives offer consistency but incur higher regulatory and production costs.^35,36

Challenges and future directions

Standardizing natural disinfectants for dental implantology and periodontics remains challenging due to variability in extraction methods, plant sources, and formulations. Diverse protocols lead to inconsistent results,⁶⁵ complicating assessments of efficacy, safety, and toxicity across the literature. Unlike synthetic disinfectants, natural products lack uniform chemical composition (Fig. 3a–h), affecting antimicrobial potency, stability, and shelf life.⁶⁶ Moreover, natural compounds are often susceptible to degradation under extreme conditions, such as high temperature, variable pH, oxidation, and enzymatic activity, which are commonly encountered during dental procedures such as ultrasonic scaling, autoclaving, or surgical exposure. Such degradation can significantly compromise therapeutic efficacy unless stabilized through appropriate formulation strategies. Extraction and purification processes may also affect compound structure and functionality.⁶⁶

Molecular structures of key plant-derived antimicrobial agents explored in prosthodontics and oral implantology (a) Propolis, (b) Epigallocatechin gallate, (c) Totarol, (d) Clove oil, (e) Tea tree oil, (f) Curcumin, (g) Thyme oil, and (h) Cinnamon oil.

Fig. 3 Molecular structures of key plant-derived antimicrobial agents explored in prosthodontics and oral implantology (a) Propolis, (b) Epigallocatechin gallate, (c) Totarol, (d) Clove oil, (e) Tea tree oil, (f) Curcumin, (g) Thyme oil, and (h) Cinnamon oil.

Clinical trials and evidence-based applications

Currently, no natural disinfectants are FDA-approved and are typically marketed under the OTC classification. Despite growing interest, the clinical translation of natural oral health products remains limited. Globally, research spans basic investigations, bioprospecting, and bioactivity assessments, with regional variations in focus areas.⁶⁷ Clinical trials evaluating propolis-based gels, green tea polyphenols, cranberry extract rinses, and neem-based products have shown encouraging results in reducing microbial load and improving periodontal indices.^66,67 For instance, propolis and Aloe vera gels have demonstrated improvements in probing depth and bleeding scores in periodontitis patients, while green tea mouth rinses have shown reductions in S. mutans levels and gingival inflammation.⁶⁶ Nonetheless, these trials are often constrained by small sample sizes, short durations, and a lack of standardization in product formulations, which limits their generalizability. Natural products offer a rich repertoire of bioactive compounds with anti-caries and anti-periodontal potential; however, their complex chemistry and poorly understood mechanisms of action remain barriers to widespread clinical adoption.^66,67 Moreover, the lack of large-scale, multicenter, randomized controlled trials restricts the establishment of standardized guidelines for integrating these agents into routine dental protocols. Bridging this gap through methodologically sound, longitudinal randomized controlled trials is essential to validate their efficacy and safety, ultimately supporting regulatory approval and clinical implementation.⁶⁸

Innovation in delivery systems

Nanotechnology offers a promising approach for combating biofilm-associated oral diseases. These systems have shown potential in various dental applications, including caries prevention, tooth remineralization, and periodontal infection management.⁶⁸ This technology enables the encapsulation of natural antimicrobial agents, enhancing their stability, bioavailability, and controlled release at infection sites. Nanocarriers, such as liposomes and nanoparticles, can penetrate biofilms and sustainably release natural disinfectants, thereby improving therapeutic outcomes in dental implantology and periodontics.⁶⁹ However, the scarcity of comprehensive clinical evidence on the synergistic effects of nanotechnology and natural disinfectants has limited broader adoption in dental practice.

Integration into mainstream prosthodontics and implantology

Integrating natural disinfectants into mainstream prosthodontics and implantology presents promising opportunities due to their proven antimicrobial properties, high biocompatibility, and low risk of adverse reactions. Nevertheless, broader adoption in routine clinical settings faces several challenges.⁷⁰ Despite these obstacles, natural disinfectants hold significant potential to emerge as viable substitutes for synthetic agents, especially in response to the increasing demand from patients and healthcare providers for safer, more environmentally friendly products.

Limitations

This review has several limitations that should be acknowledged. Clinical evidence supporting the use of natural disinfectants in prosthodontics and oral implantology is still limited, making it difficult to draw firm conclusions regarding their long-term efficacy and safety. Additionally, variations in study design, sample size, and methodology across the existing literature complicate direct comparisons. Much of the current understanding is based on in vitro or preclinical studies, which may not accurately reflect clinical outcomes. Furthermore, the potential interactions between natural and synthetic disinfectants have not been sufficiently explored. Finally, publication bias and language restrictions may have led to the exclusion of relevant studies, potentially affecting the comprehensiveness of this review.

Conclusions

Natural products such as propolis, EGCG, and clove oil show significant promise as effective disinfectants in prosthodontics and oral implantology due to their biocompatibility and reduced side effects compared to synthetic agents. To facilitate their clinical adoption, standardized protocols for compound extraction and formulation must be established. Rigorous Phase II and III clinical trials focusing on peri-implantitis management are essential to validate their efficacy and safety. Collaboration with regulatory agencies is crucial for enabling OTC approval. These targeted measures will support the integration of natural disinfectants into mainstream dental practice, offering safer and more environmentally sustainable alternatives for infection control.

Declarations

Acknowledgement

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Dr. Arpita Kabiraj, Associate Professor, Index Institute of Dental Sciences, Indore, India for her valuable guidance and support throughout the research. Her expertise and insights were invaluable in shaping our research and helping us overcome these challenges.

Funding

None.

Conflict of interest

The authors have no conflict of interest related to this publication.

Authors’ contributions

Study concept and design (MS, RKA), acquisition of data (MHA, DMB, RBA), analysis and interpretation of data (MHA, DMB, RBA, KHA, RML), drafting of the manuscript (RKA, MS), critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content (RKA, KHA, RML), administrative, technical, or material support (MHA, DMB, GMA), and study supervision (RKA, MS, GMA). All authors have made significant contributions to this study and have approved the final manuscript.

References

1	Boyce RA. Prosthodontic Principles in Dental Implantology: Adjustments in a Coronavirus Disease-19 Pandemic-Battered Economy. Dent Clin North Am 2021;65(1):135-165 View Article PubMed/NCBI

2	Rutkūnas V, Gedrimienė A, Auškalnis L, Admakin O, Mangano F. Accuracy of Fixed Implant-Supported Dental Prostheses Additively Manufactured by Metal, Ceramic, or Polymer: A Systematic Review. J Prosthodont 2022;31(S1):70-87 View Article PubMed/NCBI

3	Narayana PSVVS, Srihari PSVV. Biofilm resistant surfaces and coatings on implants: A review. Mater Today Proc 2019;18(Part 7):4847-4853 View Article

4	Devanga Ragupathi NK, Veeraraghavan B, Karunakaran E, Monk PN. Editorial: Biofilm-mediated nosocomial infections and its association with antimicrobial resistance: Detection, prevention, and management. Front Med (Lausanne) 2022;9:987011 View Article PubMed/NCBI

5	Al-Makramani BMA. Infection Control in Dental Clinics: Prosthodontics Perspectives. J Contemp Dent Pract 2022;23(9):953-961 View Article PubMed/NCBI

6	Baima G, Citterio F, Romandini M, Romano F, Mariani GM, Buduneli N, et al. Surface decontamination protocols for surgical treatment of peri-implantitis: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Clin Oral Implants Res 2022;33(11):1069-1086 View Article PubMed/NCBI

7	Jervøe-Storm PM, Jepsen S, Marder M, Kraus D, Stoilov M, Enkling N. Prevention of internal bacterial colonization of dental implants: A comparative longitudinal observational study. Clin Oral Implants Res 2023;34(9):979-986 View Article PubMed/NCBI

8	Singer L, Bourauel C. Herbalism and glass-based materials in dentistry: review of the current state of the art. J Mater Sci Mater Med 2023;34(11):60 View Article PubMed/NCBI

9	Dey S, Deshmukh S. Cavity Disinfection with Natural Agents and their Efficacy: A Review on Recent Literature. Anti-Infective Agents 2024;22(3):1-9 View Article

10	Saleem W, Sarfraz B, Mazhar S. Combined Effect of Honey, Neem (Azadirachta Indica), and Turmeric against Staphylococcus Aureus and E. Coli Isolated from a Clinical Wound Sample. BioSci Rev 2022;4(4):21-44 View Article

11	Fernandes A, Jobby R. Bacteriocins from lactic acid bacteria and their potential clinical applications. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2022;194(10):4377-4399 View Article PubMed/NCBI

12	Kanth MR, Prakash AR, Sreenath G, Reddy VS, Huldah S. Efficacy of Specific Plant Products on Microorganisms Causing Dental Caries. J Clin Diagn Res 2016;10(12):ZM01-ZM03 View Article PubMed/NCBI

13	Patri G, Sahu A. Role of Herbal Agents - Tea Tree Oil and Aloe vera as Cavity Disinfectant Adjuncts in Minimally Invasive Dentistry-An In vivo Comparative Study. J Clin Diagn Res 2017;11(7):DC05-DC09 View Article PubMed/NCBI

14	Aljarbou F, Almobarak A, Binrayes A, Alamri HM. Salvadora persica’s Biological Properties and Applications in Different Dental Specialties: A Narrative Review. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2022;2022:8667687 View Article PubMed/NCBI

15	Handa A, Hegde N, Mahendra S, Mahesh CM, Ramesh PC, Soumya KM. Propolis and its potential in dentistry: a review. Int J Health Sci Res 2012;1(2):143-147

16	Akca AE, Akca G, Topçu FT, Macit E, Pikdöken L, Özgen IŞ. The Comparative Evaluation of the Antimicrobial Effect of Propolis with Chlorhexidine against Oral Pathogens: An In Vitro Study. Biomed Res Int 2016;2016:3627463 View Article PubMed/NCBI

17	Alghutaimel H, Matoug-Elwerfelli M, Alhaji M, Albawardi F, Nagendrababu V, Dummer PMH. Propolis Use in Dentistry: A Narrative Review of Its Preventive and Therapeutic Applications. Int Dent J 2024;74(3):365-386 View Article PubMed/NCBI

18	Garaicoa JL, Bates AM, Avila-Ortiz G, Brogden KA. Antimicrobial Prosthetic Surfaces in the Oral Cavity-A Perspective on Creative Approaches. Microorganisms 2020;8(8):1247 View Article PubMed/NCBI

19	Tang HW, Phapugrangkul P, Fauzi HM, Tan JS. Lactic acid bacteria bacteriocin, an antimicrobial peptide effective against multidrug resistance: a comprehensive review. Int J Pept Res Ther 2022;28:14 View Article

20	Xu Z, Krajewski S, Weindl T, Loeffler R, Li P, Han X, et al. Application of totarol as natural antibacterial coating on dental implants for prevention of peri-implantitis. Mater Sci Eng C Mater Biol Appl 2020;110:110701 View Article PubMed/NCBI

21	Zhang Y, Wang Y, Zhu X, Cao P, Wei S, Lu Y. Antibacterial and antibiofilm activities of eugenol from essential oil of Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L. M. Perry (clove) leaf against periodontal pathogen Porphyromonas gingivalis. Microb Pathog 2017;113:396-402 View Article PubMed/NCBI

22	Longbottom CJ, Carson CF, Hammer KA, Mee BJ, Riley TV. Tolerance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa to Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil is associated with the outer membrane and energy-dependent cellular processes. J Antimicrob Chemother 2004;54(2):386-392 View Article PubMed/NCBI

23	Wylie MR, Merrell DS. The Antimicrobial Potential of the Neem Tree Azadirachta indica. Front Pharmacol 2022;13:891535 View Article PubMed/NCBI

24	Farman H, Fayyaz S, Jabeen H, Muhammad N, Khan MA, Liaqat S. Aloe Vera in Dentistry: A Review. Biomed Lett 2021;7(2):178-186 View Article

25	Abhary M, Al-Hazmi AA. Antibacterial activity of Miswak (Salvadora persica L.) extracts on oral hygiene. J Taibah Univ Sci 2016;10(4):513-520 View Article

26	Osman FA, Sarhan LA, Eladl NE, Desai V, Narayanan J, Thangavelu L, et al. Efficacy of a Eucalyptus oil-based dentifrice in reducing plaque and gingival bleeding scores - A randomized clinical crossover study. J Adv Pharm Technol Res 2024;15(1):25-28 View Article PubMed/NCBI

27	Salehi B, Mishra AP, Shukla I, Sharifi-Rad M, Contreras MDM, Segura-Carretero A, et al. Thymol, thyme, and other plant sources: Health and potential uses. Phytother Res 2018;32(9):1688-1706 View Article PubMed/NCBI

28	Wijesinghe GK, Feiria SB, Maia FC, Oliveira TR, Joia F, Barbosa JP, et al. In-vitro Antibacterial and Antibiofilm Activity of Cinnamomum verum Leaf Oil against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumoniae. An Acad Bras Cienc 2021;93(1):e20201507 View Article PubMed/NCBI

29	Furquim Dos Santos Cardoso V, Amaral Roppa RH, Antunes C, Silva Moraes AN, Santi L, Konrath EL. Efficacy of medicinal plant extracts as dental and periodontal antibiofilm agents: A systematic review of randomized clinical trials. J Ethnopharmacol 2021;281:114541 View Article PubMed/NCBI

30	Yumnam R, Nandan N, Kumar NC, Raj S, Mannepalli A. Effect of propolis in oral health. J Ayurveda Integr Med Sci 2017;2(1):186-192 View Article

31	Yupanqui Mieles J, Vyas C, Aslan E, Humphreys G, Diver C, Bartolo P. Honey: An Advanced Antimicrobial and Wound Healing Biomaterial for Tissue Engineering Applications. Pharmaceutics 2022;14(8):1663 View Article PubMed/NCBI

32	Szostak WB, Szostak-Wegierek D. [Health properties of shark oil]. Przegl Lek 2006;63(4):223-226 PubMed/NCBI

33	Tiwari R, Tiwari G, Lahiri A, Ramachandran V, Rai A. Melittin: a natural peptide with expanded therapeutic applications. Nat Prod J 2022;12(2):13-29 View Article

34	Chithrashree GC, Kumar MS, Sharada AC. Sericin, a Versatile Protein from Silkworm-Biomedical Applications. Shanlax Int J Arts Sci Humanit 2021;8(S1):6-11 View Article

35	Nomicisio C, Ruggeri M, Bianchi E, Vigani B, Valentino C, Aguzzi C, et al. Natural and Synthetic Clay Minerals in the Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Fields. Pharmaceutics 2023;15(5):1368 View Article PubMed/NCBI

36	Deshpande S, Kheur S, Kheur M, Eyüboğlu TF, Özcan M. A Review on Zeolites and Their Applications in Dentistry. Curr Oral Health Rep 2023;10:36-42 View Article

37	Chan KT, Song X, Shen L, Liu N, Zhou X, Cheng L, Chen J. Nisin and its application in oral diseases. J Funct Foods 2023;105:105559 View Article

38	Antonio LA, Alfonso PA, Tolentino EJC, Tabios CP, Sebastian PDS, Salamat GV, et al. A Review of Lactic Acid Bacteria and their Bacteriocins: Classification, Biosynthesis, and Mechanism against Oral Pathogens. Asian J Biol Life Sci 2021;10(2):291-299 View Article

39	Chinsembu KC. Plants and other natural products used in the management of oral infections and improvement of oral health. Acta Trop 2016;154:6-18 View Article PubMed/NCBI

40	Nourbakhsh F, Lotfalizadeh M, Badpeyma M, Shakeri A, Soheili V. From plants to antimicrobials: Natural products against bacterial membranes. Phytother Res 2022;36(1):33-52 View Article PubMed/NCBI

41	Yang D, Wang T, Long M, Li P. Quercetin: Its Main Pharmacological Activity and Potential Application in Clinical Medicine. Oxid Med Cell Longev 2020;2020:8825387 View Article PubMed/NCBI

42	Matsumoto-Nakano M. Role of Streptococcus mutans surface proteins for biofilm formation. Jpn Dent Sci Rev 2018;54(1):22-29 View Article PubMed/NCBI

43	Merritt J, Qi F. The mutacins of Streptococcus mutans: regulation and ecology. Mol Oral Microbiol 2012;27(2):57-69 View Article PubMed/NCBI

44	Muhammad MH, Idris AL, Fan X, Guo Y, Yu Y, Jin X, et al. Beyond Risk: Bacterial Biofilms and Their Regulating Approaches. Front Microbiol 2020;11:928 View Article PubMed/NCBI

45	Al-Radha AS, Younes C, Diab BS, Jenkinson HF. Essential oils and zirconia dental implant materials. Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants 2013;28(6):1497-1505 View Article PubMed/NCBI

46	Hairul Islam MI, Arokiyaraj S, Kuralarasan M, Senthil Kumar V, Harikrishnan P, Saravanan S, et al. Inhibitory potential of EGCG on Streptococcus mutans biofilm: A new approach to prevent Cariogenesis. Microb Pathog 2020;143:104129 View Article PubMed/NCBI

47	Rodríguez O, Sánchez R, Verde M, Núñez M, Ríos R, Chávez A. Obtaining the essential oil of Syzygium aromaticum, identification of eugenol and its effect on Streptococcus mutans. J Oral Res 2014;3(4):218-224 View Article

48	Bui FQ, Almeida-da-Silva CLC, Huynh B, Trinh A, Liu J, Woodward J, et al. Association between periodontal pathogens and systemic disease. Biomed J 2019;42(1):27-35 View Article PubMed/NCBI

49	Yuvashree M, Sushmi CB, Yogasri A, Sujitha VB, Hemalatha R. Role of antiseptics and disinfectants in the control of periodontitis: An overview. Int J Appl Dent Sci 2023;9(4):130-133 View Article

50	Bahjat SA. Evaluation of Antibacterial and Antibiofilm Activity of Cinnamon, Clove, Eucalyptus, and Tea Tree Oils Against Oral Streptococci. Rafidain J Sci 2019;28(3):1-14 View Article

51	Carvalho ÉBS, Romandini M, Sadilina S, Sant’Ana ACP, Sanz M. Microbiota associated with peri-implantitis-A systematic review with meta-analyses. Clin Oral Implants Res 2023;34(11):1176-1187 View Article PubMed/NCBI

52	Kong C, Zhang H, Li L, Liu Z. Effects of green tea extract epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) on oral disease-associated microbes: a review. J Oral Microbiol 2022;14(1):2131117 View Article PubMed/NCBI

Lombardo Bedran TB, Feghali K, Zhao L, Palomari Spolidorio DM, Grenier D. Green tea extract and its major constituent, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, induce epithelial beta-defensin secretion and prevent beta-defensin degradation by Porphyromonas gingivalis. J Periodontal Res 2014;49(5):615-623 View Article PubMed/NCBI

54	Deglovic J, Majtanova N, Majtan J. Antibacterial and Antibiofilm Effect of Honey in the Prevention of Dental Caries: A Recent Perspective. Foods 2022;11(17):2670 View Article PubMed/NCBI

55	Kucia M, Wietrak E, Szymczak M, Kowalczyk P. Effect of Ligilactobacillus salivarius and Other Natural Components against Anaerobic Periodontal Bacteria. Molecules 2020;25(19):4519 View Article PubMed/NCBI

56	Setiawan AS, Subarnas A, Djais A, Milanda T, Ichwan S. Antibacterial Effect of Green Tea Leaves and Pomegranate Arils Ethanol Extract towards Streptococcus mutans ATCC 25175 and Veillonella parvula ATCC 10790T. Malaysian Journal of Medicine & Health Sciences 2024;20:137-142

57	Shrestha S, Shrestha BR. Denture Cleansing the Natural Way: A Review. J Nepal Prosthodont Soc 2023;6(2):85-91 View Article

58	An S, Evans JL, Hamlet S, Love RM. Incorporation of antimicrobial agents in denture base resin: A systematic review. J Prosthet Dent 2021;126(2):188-195 View Article PubMed/NCBI

59	Abu-Obaid E, Salama F, Abu-Obaid A, Alanazi F, Salem M, Auda S, et al. A Comparative Evaluation of the Antimicrobial Effects of Different Mouthrinses against Oral Pathogens: An In Vitro Study(1). J Contemp Dent Pract 2020;21(5):500-508 PubMed/NCBI

60	Lubin J, Hernandez MA, Drukteinis SE, Parker WB, Murray PE. Effectiveness of disinfection therapies and promotion of osteoblast growth on osseotite and nanotite implant surfaces. Implant Dent 2014;23(4):426-433 View Article PubMed/NCBI

61	Lang NP, Mult HC, Tonetti MS. Peri-implantitis: etiology, pathogenesis, prevention, and therapy. Dent Implant Complications. In: Froum SJ (ed). Dental Implant Complications: Etiology, Prevention, and Treatment. 1st ed. New Jersy: John Wiley & Sons; 2015:170-186 View Article

62	Kumar A, Sunkara MS, Pantareddy I, Sudhakar S. Comparison of Plaque Inhibiting Efficacies of Aloe Vera and Propolis Tooth Gels: A Randomized PCR Study. J Clin Diagn Res 2015;9(9):ZC01-ZC03 View Article PubMed/NCBI

63	de Almeida JM, Marques BM, Novaes VCN, de Oliveira FLP, Matheus HR, Fiorin LG, et al. Influence of adjuvant therapy with green tea extract in the treatment of experimental periodontitis. Arch Oral Biol 2019;102:65-73 View Article PubMed/NCBI

64	Almershed N, Adams R, Mort J, Farnell D, Thomas DW, Claydon N. The use of non-surgical interventions in patients with peri-implantitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Oral Surg 2021;14(2):178-190 View Article

Lima-Filho JV, de Aguiar Cordeiro R. In vitro and in vivo antibacterial and antifungal screening of natural plant products: prospective standardization of basic methods. In: Albuquerque U, Cruz da Cunha L, de Lucena R, Alves R (eds). Methods and Techniques in Ethnobiology and Ethnoecology. Springer Protocols Handbooks. New York, NY: Humana Press; 2014 View Article

66	Ngwoke KG, Odimegwu DC, Esimone CO. Antimicrobial natural products. Science against microbial pathogens: communicating current research and technological advances. In: MÃ©ndez-Vilas A (ed). FORMATEX Microbiology Series N° 3. Vol 3. Badajoz (Spain) Forma: tex Research Center; 2011:1011-1026

67	Hashim NT, Babiker R, Rahman MM, Mohamed R, Priya SP, Chaitanya NC, et al. Natural Bioactive Compounds in the Management of Periodontal Diseases: A Comprehensive Review. Molecules 2024;29(13):3044 View Article PubMed/NCBI

68	Xiao J, Liu Y, Klein MI, Nikikova A, Ren Y. Nanotechnology and Delivery System for Bioactive Antibiofilm Dental Materials. In: de Melo MAS (ed). Designing Bioactive Polymeric Materials For Restorative Dentistry. 1st ed. London: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis; 2020:165-197 View Article

69	Mohanta YK, Chakrabartty I, Mishra AK, Chopra H, Mahanta S, Avula SK, et al. Nanotechnology in combating biofilm: A smart and promising therapeutic strategy. Front Microbiol 2022;13:1028086 View Article PubMed/NCBI

70	Mekhemar M, Geib M, Kumar M, Radha, Hassan Y, Dörfer C. Salvadora persica: Nature’s Gift for Periodontal Health. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021;10(5):712 View Article PubMed/NCBI

Copyright © 2025 Authors. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 License (CC BY-NC 4.0), permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

About this Article

Cite this article

Almehyawi MH, Basyoni DM, Alsibaie RB, Alhussini KH, Lashkar RM, Alla RK, et al. Natural Products Used as Disinfectants in Prosthodontics and Oral Implantology: A Narrative Review. J Explor Res Pharmacol. Published online: Jul 31, 2025. doi: 10.14218/JERP.2025.00016.

Copy

Export to RIS

Export to EndNote

Article History

Received	Revised	Accepted	Published
March 26, 2025	May 8, 2025	July 9, 2025	July 31, 2025

DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.14218/JERP.2025.00016

75 Article Accesses	Citation counts are provided from Dimensions. The counts may vary by service, and are reliant on the availability of their data. Counts will update daily once available.
25 PDF Download